Ppsychological safety of children and young people – risk factors and protective factors in times of uncertainty
Abstract
Introduction: The mental well-being of children and young people is an important indicator of their proper psychosocial functioning. In the face of contemporary global and social challenges, such as the pandemic and its effects, economic instability and warfare abroad, young people are at increased risk of experiencing mental health difficulties. Analysing risk factors and protective mechanisms allows for a better understanding of the conditions conducive to maintaining mental well-being in times of uncertainty.
Research Aim: The aim of this article is to identify and discuss the key risk and protective factors that determine the mental safety of children and young people in the face of current social challenges.
Evidece based-Facts: This approach enabled a synthetic overview of current risk and protective factors and highlighted the challenges related to the mental safety of children and young people in the context of contemporary social changes.
Summary: The article analyses the mental safety of children and young people from an ecological perspective using Bronfenbrenner's concept. The analysis revealed that risk and protective factors in times of uncertainty are present in key developmental contexts, including the family, peer group, school and digital environment. Social support and health education are important for protecting the mental health of children and young people, as they create health resources that enable young people to maintain their mental well-being despite the current threats.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004
Bauman, Z. (2006). Płynna nowoczesność. Wydawnictwo Literackie.
Beck, U. (2002). Społeczeństwo ryzyka. W drodze do innej nowoczesności. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
Botha, F., Morris, R. W., Butterworth, P., & Glozier, N. (2023). Generational differences in mental health trends in the twenty-first century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(49), e2303781120. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1073/pnas. 23037 81120
Botellero, L. V., Ekornes, S. M., Gamlem, S. M., Torrissen, W., & Løvoll, H. S. (2023). Perceived teacher support in secondary education from 1980 to 2019. An integrative review. Cogent Education, 10(1),1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2022.2164648
Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
Ciszewska, K., & Żyża, S. (2016).Wspomaganie szkół w zakresie interwencji kryzysowej. Sieci współpracy i samokształcenia. Ośrodek Rozwoju i Edukacji.
Clayton, S. (2020). Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 74,Article 102263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102263
Curyło-Sikora, P. (2022). Kształtowanie odporności psychicznej dzieci i młodzieży w obliczu tendencji współczesności, stanowiących czynniki ryzyka dla zdrowia psychospołecznego. Problemy Opiekuńczo-Wychowawcze, 611(6), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0015.8926
Dacka, M. (2023). Funkcjonowanie pokolenia Alpha – wyzwania i zagrożenia. Rola edukacji medialnej w kształtowaniu nowej generacji. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio J, Paedagogia-Psychologia, 36(2), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.17951/j.2023.36.2.109-123
Dacka, M. (2022). Potrzeba wsparcia pokolenia Z w szkole i na rynku pracy w sytuacji pandemii COVID-19. Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici Pedagogika, 44(2), 175–198. https://doi.org/10.12775/AUNC_PED.2022.019
Dacka, M., & Sokołowska, E. (2024). The COVID-19 pandemic–selected difficulties in child functioning. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio J. Paedagogia-Psychologia, 37(4), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.17951/j.2024.37.4.77-89
de Pedro, K. T., Gilreath, T., & Berkowitz, R. (2016). A latent class analysis of school climate among middle and high school students in California public schools. Children and Youth Services Review, 63, 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.01.023
Długosz, P. (2023). War trauma and strategies for coping with stress among Ukrainian refugees staying in Poland. Journal of Migration and Health, 8, Article 100196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2023.100196
Dolgova, V. I., Odintsova, O. D., Kondratyeva, O. A., Rokitskaya, Y. A., & Kapitanets, E. G. (2022). Study of psychologically safe communicationskills in adolescents. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences, 1 194–202. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2022.11.27
Dvorsky, M. R., Breaux, R., & Becker, S. P. (2021). Finding ordinary magic in extraordinary times: Child and adolescent resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(11), 1829–1831. https://doi. org/10.1007/s00787-020-01583-8
Dymecka, J. (2021). Psychospołeczne skutki pandemii COVID-19. Neuropsychiatria i Neuropsychologia, 16(1-2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5114/nan.2021.108030
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999
Ginsburg, K. R., & Jablow, M. M. (2011). Building resilience in children and teens: Giving kids roots and wings. American Academy of Pediatrics.
Green, L. (2021). Parenting for a digital future: how hopes and fears about technology shape children’s lives: by Sonia Livingstone and Alicia Blum-Ross, Oxford University Press. Journal of Children and Media, 15(4), 604–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2021.1978674
Guess, A., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), Article eaau4586. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586
Heitzman, J. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health. Psychiatria Polska, 54(2), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/120373
Hickman, C., Marks, E., Pihkala, P., Clayton, S., Lewandowski, R. E., Mayall, E. E., Wray, B., Mellor, C. & Van Susteren, L. (2021). Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(12), Article e863-e873. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00278-3
Houston, K. B., Liffley, E., & Wahman, C. L. (2024). Emotion talk in early childhood: A systematic literature review. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 46(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214241266160
International Monetary Fund. (2023). Global Financial Stability Report, April 2023: Safeguarding financial stability amid high inflation and geopolitical risks. IMF. https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400233241.082
Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange. (2023). Climate change 2023: Synthesis report. IPCC. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/
Kaldor, M. (2012). New and old wars: Organised violence in a global era. Polity Press.
Katra, G. (2025). Klimat w szkole z perspektywy psychologa szkolnego. In G. Katra, & K. Małek (Eds.), Szkolny kalejdoskop. Psycholog szkolny wobec wyzwań współczesności (pp. 243–272). LiberiLibri.
Kluczyńska, S., & Sokołowska, E. (2023). Zdrowie psychiczne dzieci i młodzieży w Polsce – wyzwania i rekomendacje. Psychologia Wychowawcza, 69(27), 67-77. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0054.0911
Kuczabski, M. J. (2020). Bezpieczeństwo psychiczne jednostki jako podstawa humanistycznego podejścia do bezpieczeństwa narodowego. In K. Drabik (Ed.), Humanistyczne aspekty bezpieczeństwa (pp. 255–275). Wydawnictwo ASW.
Liberska, H. (2011). Ekologiczna teoria rozwoju Bronfenbrennera. In J. Trempała (Ed.), Psychologia rozwoju człowieka (pp. 106–107). Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Loades, M. E., Chatburn, E., Higson-Sweeney, N., Reynolds, S., Shafran, R., Brigden, A., Linney, C., Łoś, M., Hawrot, A., Grzelak, S., & Balcerzak, A. (2017). Mapa czynników ryzyka i chroniących młodzież przed zachowaniami ryzykownymi: Raport I z badań NPZ (XI_17). Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://ore.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/raport-i-mapa-czynnikow-ryzyka-i-chroniacych-mlodziez-przed-zachowaniami-ryzykownymi.pdf
Łoś, M., & Hawrot, A. (2017). Jak badać szkolne czynniki ryzyka i ochrony: Raport II z badań NPZ (XI_17). Instytut Profilaktyki Zintegrowanej.
Marciniak, E. M. (2009). Psychologiczne aspekty poczucia bezpieczeństwa. In S. Sulowski, & M. Brzeziński (Eds.), Bezpieczeństwo wewnętrzne państwa. Wybrane zagadnienia (pp. 56–65). Dom Wydawniczy Elipsa.
Masten, A. S. (2014). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development. The Guilford Press.
Mayo Clinic. (2023). Mental illness in children: Know the signs. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.mayoclinic.org
McManus, M. N., Borwick, C., & Crawley, E. (2020). Rapid systematic review: the impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(11), 1218–1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009
Mori, Y., Tiiri, E., Lempinen, L., Klomek, A. B., Kolaitis, G., Slobodskaya, H. R., Kaneko, H., Srabstein, J. C., Li, L., Huong, M. N., Praharaj, S. K., Ong, S. H., Lesinskiene, S., Kyrrestad, H., Wiguna, T., Zamani, Z., Sillanmäki, L., & Sourander, A. (2022). Feeling unsafe at school among adolescents in 13 Asian and European countries: occurrence and associated factors. Frontires Psychiatry, 13, Article 823609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.823609
Mori, Y., Tiiri, E., Khanal, P., Khakurel, J., Mishina, K., & Sourander, A. (2021). Feeling unsafe at school and associated mental health difficulties among children and adolescents: A systematic review. Childre, 8(3), Article 232. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8030232
Newman, B. M., & Newman, P.H. R. (2024). Teoria bioekologiczna. In B. M. Newman, & P. H. R. Newman (Eds.), Teorie rozwoju człowieka (pp. 427–457). Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
OECD (2021). The State of Global Education: 18 months into the pandemic. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2021/09/the-state-of-global-education_f3f08b36/1a23bb23-en.pdf
Panliliom, C. C. (Ed.) (2019). Trauma-informed schools. Integrating child maltreatment prevention, detection, and intervention. Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Paluchowski, J. W., Hornowska, E., Haładziński, P., Ptaszyński, T., & Zakrzewska, M. (2023). Wczesna faza stresu pandemicznego – raport z badań. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza.
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). The psychology of fake news. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(5), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007
Pienov, V., Chystovska, Y., Shavrovska, N., Grebeniuk, O., Gvozdii, S., & Ivanova, T. (2025). Cultivating psychological safety during disaster response: enhancing resilience and psychological recovery. BRAIN. Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience, 16(3), 369–381. https://doi.org/10.70594/brain/16.3/28
Predoiu, R., Piotrowski, A., Makarowski, R., Sygit-Kowalkowska, E., Boe, O., Predoiu, A., Petrovska, I., & Rawat, S. (2024). Stres, prężność i poczucie własnej skuteczności w okresie wojny rosyjsko-ukraińskiej wśród kobiet z Ukrainy, Polski, Rumunii i ze Słowacji. Psychiatria Polska, 58(5), 863–880. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/188199
Pyżalski, J. (2021). Zdrowie psychiczne i dobrostan młodych ludzi w czasie pandemii COVID-19–przegląd najistotniejszych problemów. Dziecko Krzywdzone. Teoria, Badania, Praktyka, 20(2), 92–115.
Racine, N., McArthur, B. A., Cooke, J. E., Eirich, R., Zhu, J., & Madigan, S. (2021). Global prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents during COVID-19: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 75(11), 1142–1150. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2482
Reczkowski, R., Raubo, J. M., Jureńczyk, Ł., Podraza, A., Turowsk,i P. (2023). Świat po pandemii COVID-19 z wojną w Ukrainie w tle. Perspektywa rozwoju ładu światowego i środowiska bezpieczeństwa do 2040 roku. Wyzwania dla bezpieczeństwa Polski: Tom 1: Wymiar polityczny i geopolityczny. Wydawnictwo Centrum Doktryn i Szkolenia Sił Zbrojnych. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12153/6378
Sarzała, K. (2013). Standardy usług pomocy społecznej interwencji kryzysowej, usług opiekuńczych świadczonych w miejscu zamieszkania, poradnictwa specjalistycznego, w tym poradnictwa specjalistycznego dla osób niepełnosprawnych, członków rodzin osób niepełnosprawnych oraz osób wspierających osoby niepełnosprawne. Rekomendacje metodyczne i organizacyjne (s. 6–42). Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: http://ozrss.pl/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Standardy-uslug-pomocy-spolecznej.pdf
Schaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2015). Psychologia rozwoju. Od dziecka do dorosłości. Harmonia.
Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(6), 1025–1041. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021344
Siegel, D. J., & Bryson T. P. (2012). The whole-brain child: 12 revolutionary strategies to nurture your child's developing mind. Constable and Robinson.
Skrabacz, A. (2019). Edukacja dla bezpieczeństwa młodzieży wobec wyzwań i zagrożeń współczesności. Annales Universitatis Maria Curie Skłodowska, sectio J – Paedagogia Psychologia, 32(3), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.17951/j.2019.32.3.93-106
Sokołowska, E. (2015). Psychospołeczne uwarunkowania trudności związanych z realizacją zadań. In Cz. Czabała & S. Kluczyńska (Eds.), Poradnictwo psychologiczne (pp. 45-81). Wydawnictwo PWN.
Sokołowska, E. & Kluczyńska, S. (2024). Rola nauczycieli we wspieraniu i ochronie zdrowia psychicznego uczniów. Psychologia Wychowawcza, 72(30), 129-147. https://doi.org/10.71358/pw.1854
Standing, G. (2011). The precariat: The new dangerous class. Bloomsbury Academic.
Szymańska, J. (2014). Ochrona zdrowia psychicznego dzieci i młodzieży w szkole. Ośrodek Rozwoju Edukacji.
Thiagarajan, T., & Newson, J. (2023). The mental state of the world in 2022. Mental Health Million Project: Sapien Labs. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https:// mentalstateoftheworld. report/ wpcon tent/ uploa ds/ 2023/ 02/ Mental- State- of- the-World- 2022. pdf
Twenge, J. M. (2017). iGen: Why Today’s Super-Connected Kids Are Growing Up Less Rebellious, More Tolerant, Less Happy—and Completely Unprepared for Adulthood. Atria. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12345
Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2017). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2020). Education: From COVID-19 school closures to recovery. UNESCO. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/consequences
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2023). Global trends: Forced displacement in 2022 (Report, 48 pp.). UNHCR. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.unhcr.org/publications/global-trends-2022
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2021). The state of the world’s children 2021: On my mind – Promoting, protecting and caring for children’s mental health. UNICEF. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.unicef.org/reports/state-worlds-children-2021
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2023). How to spot early warning signs of mental health issues in your child. UNICEF. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.unicef.org
Vasta, R., Haith, M. M., & Miller, S. A. (2001). Rozwój a środowisko. In. R. Vasta, & M. S. A. Haith (Eds.), Psychologia dziecka (pp. 72–75). Wydawnictwo WSiP.
Wanless, S.B. (2016). The role of psychological safety in human development. Research in Human Development, 13(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2016.1141283
Wei, Y., Hayden, J. A., Kutcher, S., Zygmunt, A., & McGrath, P. (2013). The effectiveness of school mental health literacy programs to address knowledge, attitudes and help seeking among youth. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 7(2), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12010
Werner, E., & E., Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Cornell University Press.
World Health Organization. (2022). World Mental Health Report: Transforming Mental Health for All. WHO. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240049338
World Health Organization. (2023). New WHO–HBSC data shed light on COVID-19 pandemic's effects on children and adolescents. Four new reports highlight impacts and recommendations going forward. Retrieved 10, December, 2025 from: https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/28-06-2023-new-who-hbsc-data-shed-light-on-covid-19-pandemic-s-effects-on-children-and-adolescents
Zhikhareva, L., & Kolchik, E. (2019). Psychological safety of the primary schoolchild in the educational environment. The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences (pp. 1949–1957). https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2019.12.04.231
Zoellner, F., Erhart, M., Napp, A. K., Reiss, F., Devine, J., Kaman, A., & Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2024). Risk and protective factors for mental health problems in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: results of the longitudinal COPSY study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(6), 1849–1859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02604-6
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/lrp.2026.45.3.159-179
Date of publication: 2026-09-28 10:44:54
Date of submission: 2025-12-17 16:35:51
Statistics
Indicators
Copyright (c) 2026

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.